UNDERSTANDING OF THE PATHOGENESIS OF TRAUMATIC SPINAL CORD INJURY AND POSSIBLE WAYS OF THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION: LITERATURE REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.14531/ss2015.2.8-15
Abstract
The paper presents a literature review on the pathogenesis of traumatic spinal cord injury. Spinal and spinal cord injury is of particular significance in the structure of human traumatic injuries due to the severity of socioeconomic consequences, difficulties of treatment, and high rate of disability among injured persons. In recent years, there has been a clear upward trend in the frequency of injuries to the spine and spinal cord. The spinal cord is an essential part of the nervous system having great physiological significance for the integrative activity. The total effect of spinal cord injury can be estimated as the sum of primary destruction of the nervous tissue and secondary extensive apoptosis near the injury site and at a distance from it. This results in the development of complex structural and functional changes manifested in multiple neurotrophic, metabolic, dyscirculatory and infectious complications, which greatly aggravate traumatic disease as a whole and affect vital functions of a patient immediately after spinal cord injury and in the late period. The current understanding of possible ways of therapeutic intervention to improve the existing treatment strategy for patients with spinal cord injury is reviewed.
About the Authors
Sergey Georgyevich Volkov
Novosibirsk Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics n.a. Ya.L. Tsivyan, Russia
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Evgeny Ivanovich Vereshchagin
Novosibirsk State Medical University, Russia
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
References
1. Баснакьян А.Г., Басков А.В., Соколов Н.Н., Борщенко И.А. Апоптоз при травматическом повреждении спинного мозга: перспективы фармакологической коррекции // Вопросы медицинской химии. 2000. № 5. С. 431-443.
2. Гринь А.А. Проблемы организации и лечения больных с позвоночно-спинномозговой травмой (комментарий к статье А.Н. Баринова и Е.Н. Кондакова «Организация помощи пострадавшим с позвоночно-спинномозговой травмой в Архангельской области») // Нейрохирургия. 2011. №3. С. 79-81.
3. Гришенкова Л.Н. Клинико-морфологическая характеристика травматической болезни спинного мозга // Здравоохранение. 1998. № 1. С. 18-21.
4. Коган О.Г. Реабилитация больных при травмах позвоночника и спинного мозга. М., 1975.
5. Лившиц А.В. Хирургия спинного мозга. М., 1990.
6. Первухин С.А., Лебедева М.Н., Елистратов А.А., Рерих В.В., Садовой М.А. Интенсивная терапия осложненной травмы шейного отдела позвоночника // Хирургия позвоночника. 2014. № 4. С. 72-79.
7. Полищук Н.Е., Корж Н.А., Фищенко В.Я. Повреждения позвоночника и спинного мозга (механизмы, клиника, диагностика, лечение). Киев, 2001.
8. Позвоночно-спинномозговая травма (классификационная характеристика, хирургическое лечение): Учеб. пособие / А.А. Луцик, В.В. Рерих, Г.Ю. Бондаренко, В.С. Карпенко. Новокузнецк, 2011.
9. Савченко С.А. Восстановительная хирургия спинного мозга при его травматическом повреждении (экспериментально-клиническое исследование): Автореф. дис. … канд. мед. наук]. М., 2005.
10. Шульга А.Е., Норкин И.А., Нинель В.Г., Пучиньян Д.М., Зарецков В.В., Коршунова Г.А., Островский В.В., Смолькин А.А. Современные аспекты патогенеза травмы спинного мозга и стволов периферических нервов // Рос. физиол. журнал им. И.М. Сеченова. 2014. № 2. С. 145-160.
11. Agrawal SK, Fehlings MG. Mechanisms of secondary injury to spinal cord axons in vitro: role of Na+, Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase, the Na(+)-H+ exchanger, and the Na(+)-Ca2+ exchanger. J Neurosci. 1996; 16: 545-552.
12. Boulis NM, Turner DE, Dice JA, Bhatia V, Feldman EL. Characterization of adenoviral gene expression in spinal cord after remote vector delivery. Neurosurgery. 1999; 45: 131-137. doi: 10.1097/00006123-199907000-00029.
13. Carlson GD, Minato Y, Okada A, Gorden CD, Warden KE, Barbeau JM, Biro CL, Bohiman HH, Lamanna JC. Early time-dependent decompression for spinal cord injury: vascular mechanisms of recovery. J Neurotrauma. 1997; 14: 951-962. doi: 10.1089/neu.1997.14.951.
14. Carlson SL, Parrish ME, Springer JE, Doty K, Dossett L. Acute inflammatory response in spinal cord following impact injury. Exp Neurol. 1998; 151: 77-88. doi: 10.1006/exnr.1998.6785.
15. Casha S, Yu WR, Fehlings MG. Oligodendroglial apoptosis occurs along degenerating axons and is associated with FAS and p75 expression following spinal cord injury in the rat. Neuroscience. 2001; 103: 203-218. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4522(00)00538-8.
16. Chapman AG. Glutamate receptors in epilepsy. In: The Glutamate Synapse as a Therapeutic Target, ed by O.P.Ottersen, I.A.Langmoen, L. Gjerstad. Series: Prog Brain Res. 1998; 116: 371-383.
17. Davis HP, Tribuna J, Pulsinelli WA, Volpe ВТ. Reference and working memory of rats following hippocampal damage induced by transient forebrain ischemia. Physiol Behav. 1986; 37: 387-392. doi: 10.1016/0031-9384(86)90195-2.
18. Dietrich WD, Lin В, Globus MY, Green EJ, Ginsberg MD, Busto R. Effect of delayed MK-801 (dizocilpine) treatment with or without immediate postischemic hypothermia on chronic neuronal survival after global forebrain ischemia in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1995; 15: 960-968.
19. Farooque M, Badonic T, Olsson Y, Holtz A. Astrocytic reaction after graded spinal cord compression in rats: immunohistochemical studies on glial fibrillary acidic protein and vimentin. J Neurotrauma. 1995; 12: 41-52. doi: 10.1089/neu.1995.12.41.
20. Farooque M, Olsson Y, Hillered L. Pretreatment with alpha-phenyl-N-tert-butyl-nitrone (PBN) improves energy-metabolism after spinal-cord injury in rats. J Neurotrauma. 1997; 14: 469-476. doi: 10.1089/neu.1997.14.469.
21. Fehlings MG. Point of view: Characterization of apoptosis in a motor neuron cell-line. Spine. 1998; 23: 158.
22. Flemming W. Uber die Bildung von Richtungsfiguren in Saugethierein beim Untergang Graaf scher Folikel. Arch Anat Entw Gesch. 1885: 221-224.
23. Ghirnikar RS, Lee YL, Eng LF. Chemokine antagonist infusion attenuates cellular infiltration following spinal cord contusion injury in rat. J Neurosci Res. 2000; 59: 63-73. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4547(20000101)59: 1<63:: AID-JNR8>3.0.CO; 2-W.
24. Gluksmann A. Cell death in normal vertebrate ontogeny. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 1951; 26: 59-86.
25. Groves MJ, An SF, Giometto B, Scaravilli F. Inhibition of sensory neuron apoptosis and prevention of loss by NT-3 administration following axotomy. Exp Neurol. 1999; 155: 284-294. doi: 10.1006/exnr.1998.6985.
26. Grosso MJ, Matheus V, Clark M, van Rooijen N, Iannotti CA, Steinmetz MP. Effects of an immunomodulatory therapy and chondroitinase after spinal cord hemisection injury. Neurosurgery. 2014; 75: 461-471. doi: 10.1227/NEU.0000000000000447.
27. Gu ZZ, Pan YC, Cui JK, Klebuc MJ, Shenaq S, Liu PK. Gene expression and apoptosis in the spinal cord neurons after sciatic nerve injury. Neurochem Int. 1997; 30: 417-426. doi: 10.1016/S0197-0186(96)00077-0.
28. Hu WH, Qiang WA, Li F, Liu N, Wang GQ, Wang HY, Wan XS, Liao WH, Liu JS, Jen MF. Constitutive and inducible nitric oxide synthases after dynorphin-induced spinal cord injury. J Chem Neuroanat. 2000; 17: 183-197. doi: 10.1016/S0891-0618(99)00039-3.
29. Hurlbert RJ, Hadley MN, Walters BC, Aarabi B, Dhall SS, Gelb DE, Rozzelle CJ, Ryken TC, Theodore N. Pharmacological therapy for acute spinal cord injury. Neurosurgery. 2013; 76 Suppl 1: S71-S83. doi: 10.1227/01.neu.0000462080.04196.f7.
30. Isaksson J, Farooque M, Holtz A, Hillered L, Olsson Y. Expression of ICAM-1 and CD11b after experimental spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurotrauma. 1999; 16: 165-173. doi: 10.1089/neu.1999.16.165.
31. Jakeman LB, Wei P, Guan Z. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor infusion affects hindlimb activity after spinal-cord injury in rats. Exp Neurol. 1998; 151: 160.
32. Kato H, Kanellopoulos GK, Matsuo S, Wu YJ, Jacquin MF, Hsu CY, Choi DW, Kouchoukos NT. Protection of rat spinal cord from ischemia with dextrorphan and cycloheximide: effects on necrosis and apoptosis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1997; 114: 609-618. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5223(97)70051-5.
33. Kawamura T, Akira T, Watanabe M, Kagitani Y. Prostaglandin E1 prevents apoptotic cell death in superficial dorsal horn of rat spinal cord. Neuropharmacology. 1997; 36: 1023-1030. doi: 10.1016/S0028-3908(97)00096-8.
34. Kerr JF, Wyllie AH, Currie AR. Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br J Cancer. 1972; 26: 239-257.
35. Kubota K, Saiwai H, Kumamaru H, Maeda T, Ohkawa Y, Aratani Y, Nagano T, Iwamoto Y, Okada S. Myeloperoxidase exacerbates secondary injury by generating highly reactive oxygen species and mediating neutrophil recruitment in experimental spinal cord injury. Spine. 2012; 37: 1363-1369. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e31824b9e77.
36. Lang-Lazdunski L, Heurteaux C, Vaillant N, Widmann C, Lazdunski M. Riluzole prevents ischemic spinal cord injury caused by aortic crossclamping. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1999; 117: 881-889.
37. Leski ML, Bao F, Wu L, Qian H, Sun D, Liu D. Protein and DNA oxidation in spinal injury: neurofilaments - an oxidation target. Free Radic Biol Med. 2001; 30: 613-624. doi: 10.1016/S0891-5849(00)00500-1.
38. Li GL, Brodin G, Farooque M, Funa K, Holtz A, Wang WL, Olsson Y. Apoptosis and expression of Bcl-2 after compression trauma to rat spinal cord. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1996; 55: 280-289. doi: 10/10997/00005072-199603000-00003.
39. Loopuijt LD, Schmidt WJ. The role of NMDA receptors in the slow neuronal degeneration of Parkinson’s disease. Amino Acids. 1998; 14: 17-23. doi: 10.1007/BF01345237.
40. Maxwell WL, Kosanlavit R, McCreath BJ, Reid O, Graham DI. Freeze-fracture and cytochemical evidence for structural and functional alteration in the axolemma and myelin sheath of adult guinea pig optic nerve fibers after stretch injury. J Neurotrauma. 1999; 16: 273-284. doi: 10.1089/neu.1999.16.273.
41. Majno G, Joris I. Apoptosis, oncosis, and necrosis. An overview of cell death. Am J Pathol. 1995; 146: 3-5.
42. McTigue DM, Horner PJ, Stokes BT, Gage FH. Neurotrophin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor induce oligodendrocyte proliferation and myelination of regenerating axons in the contused adult rat spinal cord. J Neurosci. 1998; 18: 5354-5365.
43. Meldrum BS. The glutamate synapse as a therapeutical target: perspectives for the future. In: The Glutamate Synapse as a Therapeutic Target, ed by O.P. Ottersen, I.A. Langmoen, L. Gjerstad. Series: Progr Brain Res. 1998; 116: 441-458.
44. Meldrum В, Garthwaite J. Excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative disease. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 1990; 11: 379-387. doi: 10.1016/0165-6147(90)90184-A.
45. Nasrabady SE, Kuzhandaivel A, Nistri A. Studies of locomotor network neuroprotection by the selective poly(ADP-ribise) polymerase-1 inhibitor PJ-34 against excitotoxic injury to the rat spinal cord in vitro. Eur J Neurosci. 2011; 33: 2216-2227. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07714.x.
46. Nashmi R, Fehlings MG, Mutsaers L, Ackerley CA, Becker, LE, Jones OT, Scales K, Khanna R, Jugloff DM. Role of potassium channels in axonal dysfunction after spinal cord injury: molecular and electrophysiological evidence. J Neurotrauma. 1998; 15: 21.
47. Obrenovitch TP, Urenjak J, Zilkha E, Jay TM. Excitotoxicity in neurological disorders - the glutamate paradox. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2000; 18: 281-287. doi: 10.1016/S0736-5748(99)00096-9.
48. Ray SK, Wilford GG, Matzelle DC, Hogan EL, Banik NL. Calpeptin and methylprednisolone inhibit apoptosis in rat spinal cord injury. Ann. NY Acad Sci. 1999; 890: 261-269. doi: org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08001.x.
49. Rosenberg LJ, Wrathall JR. Quantitative analysis of acute axonal pathology in experimental spinal cord contusion. J Neurotrauma. 1997; 14: 823-838. doi: 10.1089/neu.1997.14.823.
50. Sakurai M, Hayashi T, Abe K, Sadahiro M, Tabayashi K. Delayed and selective motor neuron death after transient spinal cord ischemia: a role of apoptosis? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1998; 115: 1310-1315. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5223(98)70213-2.
51. Schumacher PA, Eubanks JH, Fehlings MG. Increased calpain I-mediated proteolysis, and preferential loss of dephosphorylated NF200, following traumatic spinal cord injury. Neuroscience. 1999; 91: 733-744. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4522(98)00552-1.
52. Springer JE, Azbill RD, Knapp PE. Activation of the caspase-3 apoptotic cascade in traumatic spinal cord injury. Nat Med. 1999; 5: 943-946.
53. Springer JE, Azbill RD, Mark RJ, Begley JG, Waeg G, Mattson MP. 4-hydroxynonenal, a lipid peroxidation product, rapidly accumulates following traumatic spinal cord injury and inhibits glutamate uptake. J Neurochem. 1997; 68: 2469-2476. doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1997.68062469.x.
54. Tatlisumak T, Takano К, Meiler MR, Fisher M. A glycine site antagonist ZD9379 reduces number of spreading depressions and infarct size in rats with permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2000; 76: 331-333. doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-6346-7_68.
55. Virchow R. Cellular Pathology as Based upon Physiological and Pathological Histology. Ed. 2. Dower Publishers, New York, 1971: 356-382.
56. Wada S, Yone K, Ishidou Y, Nagamine T, Nakahara S, Niiyama T, Sakou T. Apoptosis following spinal cord injury in rats and preventative effect of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist. J Neurosurg. 1999; 91(1 Suppl): 98-104. doi: 10.3171/spi.1999.91.1.0098.
57. Yong C, Arnold PM, Zoubine MN, Citron BA, Watanabe I, Merman NE, Festoff BW. Apoptosis in cellular compartments of rat spinal cord after severe contusion injury. J Neurotrauma. 1998; 15: 459-472. doi: 10.1089/neu.1998.15.459.
58. Yoon KW, Fuse T, Shah PT, Nguyen S, Klein ML. Indirect glutamate neurotoxicity. J Neurotrauma. 1998; 15: 141-147. doi: 10.1089/neu.1998.15.141.
Review
For citations:
Volkov S.G., Vereshchagin E.I. UNDERSTANDING OF THE PATHOGENESIS OF TRAUMATIC SPINAL CORD INJURY AND POSSIBLE WAYS OF THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION: LITERATURE REVIEW. Russian Journal of Spine Surgery (Khirurgiya Pozvonochnika). 2015;12(2):8-15. https://doi.org/10.14531/ss2015.2.8-15
Email this article 